লিখেছেনঃ Shamsul Alam Chanchal, আপডেটঃ March 15, 2020, 12:00 AM, Hits: 3163

 

Part – 1

Our recent knowledge on ancient Indian social and religious history has been greatly enriched by the huge archaeological research supplemented by scientific analysis carried out throughout the Indian subcontinent during the last quarter of a century. This article is an attempt to find the process of development and rise of Hindu religion primarily on the basis of recent archaeological information. 

Because of shortage of archaeological information during the early historic and early medieval periods for long time the present history books had been written mostly on the sources of ancient literatures, inscriptions, coins and notes from the foreign visitors in India. Out of those source materials, ancient literatures had been a large source of information for writing the history books. Ancient literatures especially the Hindu literatures are full of mythical corroboration and one literature has contradictory events and narratives with the other. For this reason, ascertaining the chronology of the composition of the literatures has posed difficulty in historical perspectives, and so most of the time frames are only assumptions without any firm ground. Writing history on the basis of such literatures may create false narratives of history and consequently possibility of reaching wrong conclusion. We suppose that it occurred in finding the development of the Hindu religion.

Hindu is a term used to designate the religious, social and philosophical views and practices of a religion, indigenous to the Indian subcontinent, that claim the legacy of ancient Vedic religion.

It is generally accepted that Vedic religion is the predecessor of Hindu religion, although there are many differences between them. In Vedic religion there was no caste system and no existence of supreme Brahman class, no practice of iconic worship, no prohibition of eating cow-meat, there was presence of the practice of cremation as well as inhumation of dead, etc. In the following verse we see the reference of cremation practice in the Ŗigveda:^[1]

“May those who are Agnidagdhas, and those who are not, be satisfied with Swadhá in the midst of heaven; and do thou, supreme Lord, associated with them, construct at thy pleasure that body that is endowed with breath.” (X/15/14)

(Translator Wilson’s note: Those whose bodies have been burnt by obsequial fire) 

There are some descriptions that indicate the custom of inhumation, as can be stated in the following verses:

“11. Earth, rise up above him; oppress him not; be attentive to him (and) comfortable; cover him up, earth, as a mother covers her child with the skirt of her garment.

12. May the earth heaped over him lie light: may thousands of particles (of dust) envelope him; may these mansions distil ghee (for him); may they every day be an asylum to him in this world.”  (X/18/11-12)

There is mention of the custom for burning the dead in the verse X/16/1-2.

The absence of cast system, which is based on hereditary occupations, is referred to in the Ŗigveda. The following verse mentions:

“I am the singer; papa is the physician, mamma throws the corn upon the grinding stones; having various occupations, desiring riches we remain (in the world) like cattle (in the stalls): flow, Indu, for Indra.” (IX/112/3)

The mention of four castes is seen in the tenth mandala of the Ŗigveda, which is commonly known as Purusha-súkta. The commentators of the Ŗigveda mention that Purusha-súkta is relatively modern. Scholars agree that there was no existence of cast system during Vedic period. 

Prohibition of eating cow meat was not in vogue during the Vedic period. The Ŗigveda refers the practice of cooking cow meat by fire, as can be seen in below verse:

“Enclose the mail of Agni with the (hide of the) cow; cover it with the fat and marrow: then will not (Agni), bold, exulting in his fierce heat, proud, embrace thee roundabout to consume thee (to ashes).” (X/16/7)

In another verse, we see:

“(Vasukra speaks :) Thy worshippers express with the stone fast flowing exhilarating Soma-juices for thee, thou drinkest them: they roast bulls for thee, thou eatest them, when thou art invoked, Maghavan, to the sacrificial food.” (X/28/3)

Other verses for the references of cow eating are X/86/14, X/89/14, etc.

There was no image worship during the Vedic period, as evidenced from the Ŗigveda. There are references of puppets or dolls, but it is clear that those are not for the worship, as are noteworthy:

“Like two puppets on an arranged, new, and slender stage, thy two brown (steeds) are brilliant at sacrifices.” (IV/32/23) 

In Hindu religion we see that, the main Vedic deities like Indra, Varuna, Agni, Aświns and Usha are not worshipped by the Hindus. It is interesting that the Vedic hymns are recited for the rituals in front of the images of the Hindu deities. The Hindu deities are Shiva, Krishna, Ganesha, Kali, Rama, Vishnu, Lakshmi, Durga, Saraswati, etc. But most of them were not even mentioned in the Vedic literatures and most of them were not worshipped during the Vedic period. Considering all these facts it can be mentioned that although the Hindu religion has been derived from the Vedic religion by accepting its legacy, it is completely a different religion. The Ŗigveda is considered as the earliest document of the Vedic religion. The Brahmans are the priests of the Hindu religion; proclaim the Ŗigveda as a sacred document of the Hindus also. Thus, in spite of being completely a different religion than the Vedic, the Hindu religion owned and continued the legacy of the Vedic religion.

Similar phenomenon occurred in the religion of Islam. At the seventh century in Arabia, the prophet Muhammad established a new monotheistic religion Islam in a background of already existing pagan and polytheistic religions. The god Allah was worshipped by the tribes living in and around Mecca along with many other respective tribal deities. The god Allah was the chief god in the temple of Ka’aba, and the tribe Quraysh living in Mecca was the leading tribe who controlled the temple Ka’aba and it’s priesthood. From this tribe the prophet Muhammad came.  Islam was completely a new religion, but during the founding of the religion Islam Muhammad took many elements from the old traditional polytheistic religion of Arabia, especially from the religious customs and practices of the people of Mecca and its adjoining region with their myths and legends. One of the important customs was the yearly pilgrimage to the temple of Ka’aba, with some ritual rites known as Hajj. As he introduced the monotheistic religion Islam, Muhammad also adopted many customs of other monotheistic religions of Christians and Jews, but in a changed form.  In his new religion Islam, he adopted concept of calling for prayer in the mosque, concept of prayer and fasting mainly from the Jews. He also adopted the legends and traditions inherited by the Jews and the Christians, as the story of creation, the story of Adam and Eve, etc. All the earlier prophets of Jews and Christians were taken by him and proclaimed them as the prophets of Islam. He also proclaimed the Gods of Jews and Christians to be the Islamic God, Allah. The Qur-an claims that Allah sent Moses the prophet of the Jews. We see in the following verses^[2]:

“It was We who revealed

The Law (to Moses): therein

Was guidance and light.

By its standard have been judged

The Jews, by the Prophets

Who bowed (as in Islam)

To God’s (Allah’s) Will, by the Rabbis

And the Doctors of Law:

For to them was entrusted   

The protection of God’s (Allah’s) Book,

And they were witnesses thereto:

Therefore fear not men,

But fear Me, and sell not

My Signs for a miserable price.

If any do fail to judge

By (the light of) what God (Allah)

Hath revealed, they are

(No better than) Unbelievers.”

(Sūra Māïda, V/47)

Similarly the Qur-an also claims the gospels of the Jesus have been sent by Allah, which is mentioned in the following verses:

“And in their footsteps

We sent Jesus the son

Of Mary, confirming

The Law that had come

Before him: We sent him

The Gospel: therein

Was guidance and light,

And confirmation of the Law

That had come before him:

A guidance and an admonition

To those who fear God (Allah).

(Sūra Māïda, V/49)

Thus the new religion of Islam was introduced in the context of Arabian society, which carried the legacy of the existing dominant religions, custom and legends in the Arabian society.

The same thing happened before Islam in the case of Christianity or Christian religion. Jesus, the founder of the Christian religion, came from the existing Jewish religious tradition. But he reformed it, which led to the rise of a completely new religion known as Christianity. To carry the old legacy, Jesus announced to follow the laws of Moses, as can be seen in the Bible. Gospel of John in the New Testament of the Bible mentions:^[3]

“Not until halfway through the Feast did Jesus go up to the temple courts and begin to teach. The Jews were amazed and asked, “How did this man get such learning without having studied?”

Jesus answered, “My teaching is not my own. It comes from him whom who sent me. If anyone chooses to do God’s will, he will find out whether my teaching comes from God or whether I speak on my own. He who speaks on his own does so gain honor for himself, but he who works for the honor of the one who sent him is a man of truth; there is nothing false about him. Has not Moses given you the law? Yet not one of you keeps the law. Why are you trying to kill me?” (John, 7/14-19)

The old scripture of Jewish religion was not discarded, rather accepted as the foundation of the new religion. This is called by the Christians the Old Testament and the new one is called by them the New Testament. However, both the scriptures are called the Bible by the Christians. Thus by claiming the legacy or heritage of the older legacy a new religion comes into being. 

The same process of assimilation and adoption of the old tradition in a new religious structure happened for Hindu or Brahmanical religion. The difference was that in Islam or in Christianity the preacher of the religion is single, but in Hindu religion the preacher or pastor of the religion is multiple, who are known as Brahmans. Moreover, there was a large time span from the time of transformation of Vedic religion into the Hindu religion in the Indian society. In order to understand the process of religious transformation of the Vedic religion to Brahmanism or Hindu religion it needs to be discussed in brief the Vedic religion and its inception in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent. This is also closely related to the understanding of the Indus Civilization and also the Rig-Veda, the earliest text of the Vedic religion.

The Indus Civilization, also known as Harappan Civilization, flourished in the north-western part of Indian sub-continent more than five thousand years before. Recent archaeological evidences suggests that at earliest level of Mehrgarh in Baluchistan settled life started from middle of the 8th  millennium BCE onwards and at other sites at earliest levels at Bhirrana (Haryana) and Kunal (Haryana) with some other later settlements in the North-western part of the Indian subcontinent there was continuity of culture from Neolithic to chalcolithic.^[4] The urban phase which is called Mature Harappan was the culmination of all the former processes towards urbanization, occurred at about 2600 BCE. The civilization lasted for about seven hundred years and declined at around 1900 BCE. The civilization is unique in the history of the old world for its predominantly non-violent characteristics, absence of palace or royal tomb, absence of images definitely identified as deity of the rulers, and absence of temples.

In Harappan urban phase the settlements were distributed in wide area including north Afghanistan, Pakistan and the north-western part of India, which is greater than the combined area of contemporary Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations. The major cities are Mohenjo-daro and Lakhanjo-daro (both in Sindh), Harappa (Pakistani Punjab), Rakhigarhi (Haryana) and Dholavira (Gujarat). Some of other cities and towns are Ganeriwala (Pakistani Punjab), Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lothal (Guajarat), Nausharo (Baluchistan), etc. In this large area the cities and towns were planned, with straight roads and lanes, and are characterized by similar brick sizes. The scripts are similar all over the civilization and were written on the terracotta and steatite seals, sealings and tablets, which are not deciphered yet. The residential houses of the riches in the cities and towns are distributed all through the settlement and not concentrated at any certain area. The civilization followed a standardized weight and linear measures which represent the powerful means of social control. Graduated scales have been found from Mohenjo-daro, Lothal and Kalibangan. Most large settlements were surrounded by massive mud-brick walls. But there is no evidence for major conflict or warfare, as was common in other early civilizations.

The most remarkable feature of Harappan settlements is the drainage system, which is found at Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Nausharo, Chanhudaro (Sindh), Allahdino (Sindh), Dholavira, Lothal, etc.     

War weapons found meager in number and with poor quality and lack of arts related to warfare indicate that the civilization was not founded on military power, as has been evidenced in other ancient civilizations in Egypt, Mesopotamia and China.

Examination of large numbers of Harappan skeletons reveals that nutritional stress is less between the high ranking people and the subordinate social status, as compared to other contemporary civilizations.^[5] This means that the Harappan society was sufficiently prosperous and there was less difference in wealth and nutrition among upper and lower classes in the society. Although there are some cemeteries found close to some Harappan sites, only a small number of the urban population practiced burial as evidenced from the comparatively small numbers of skeletons in the cemeteries. Archaeologist Kenoyer proposes that majority of the population practiced either cremation or disposed the dead by means other than inhumation.^[6] As there was no royal burial, no figurines, seals or inscribed objects have been found with burials, and no high-value objects have been found to be buried with the dead.^[7] In most ancient settlements there is little evidence of overall settlement planning. There the houses and structures grew up spontaneously along the major streets that connect entrances to temples or important buildings. In Harappan civilization there was clear evidence of extensive centralized planning of the settlements.

Similarity in town planning, linear measurement, weights, and similar script throughout the large distance undoubtedly express the centralized control of the civilization, which means that the Indus state was administered by a central authority. Absence of palace and royal tomb necessarily indicates the absence of hereditary king or emperor in the civilization. Mohenjo-daro is the largest city in the civilization, but other cities like Harappa, Rakhigarhi, Lakhanjo-daro and Ganeriwala are also large cities. In spite of the strict similarities in linear measures, weights, scripts, etc. there was also diversity to some extent in general cultural aspects like arts and crafts, style of pottery and in town planning.  

All these features indicate that the civilization might have been administered and controlled from a single capital, but the control was not over-centralized. There was distribution of authority and power to other cities, towns and other settlements. The supposed pillared hall at the upper town in Mohenjo-daro might be the assembly hall for administering the whole empire. All these features led us to conclude that the civilization was democratic and secular in nature, undoubtedly in the context of ancient world. Moreover, it can be suggested that the rulers provided every kind of possible urban amenities to all citizens of the settlements.

The archaeological evidences also indicate that the civilization was prosperous and considerably large numbers of people were sustained in large numbers of settlements. We assume that without artificial irrigation system the huge number of population could not be sustained, and this was introduced at the beginning of the civilization in the river system of the area under the leadership of the rulers of the civilization. This artificial irrigation system was water harvesting by building dams across the rivers with sluice gates and distributing the impounded water to distant lands through canals. To our view the dam-based river control system was the main source of prosperity of the Indus civilization. However, due to silt formation after some hundreds of years the river control system failed and it caused sufferings to the large number of the people. Those who had been suffering for long went against the rulers and wanted to destroy the dams. We assume that at the beginning the dams were deified by the ancient people, especially by the backward people and so it was required to reform the existing religion to destroy the dams. In fact, the Rigveda pictures that closing episode of the civilization at its declining phase from a religious perspective.

To our view the Rigvedic hymns were composed by the rebel priests of the civilization who led the discontent community to destroy the dams or Vṛitra in the name of war god Indra.  So, the Vedic movement against the dams or Vṛitra became the religious reform movement led by the priests who had been supported by a faction of the rulers of the civilization at its last phase. After the destruction of dams the civilization could not be sustained and there were dispersion of large numbers of the people to eastern and western part of the subcontinent as well as further west to Middle East, central Asia and Europe. After the end of the civilization there was backward march in the society. The entire phenomenon has been discussed in details in the book The Aryans and the Indus Civilization,^[8] and in the article Decline of Indus Civilization and Vedic Upheaval,^[9] both written by Shamsuzzoha Manik and myself.  

From the features found from archaeology and other sources, it seems that the civilization should have been secular and the founders and the rulers of the civilization should be atheistic, at least during its formative phases. In ancient times as a civilization was formed by a leading tribe or a confederacy of some leading tribes, many other tribes had been incorporated as workforces for building and maintaining the physical structures and amenities of the civilization. Without coercion it was extremely difficult in ancient times for acculturation of the new tribes and assimilating them into the greater society. We assume that the tribes entering into the community of the greater society in the civilization must have been forced to suppress their tribal religious practices, rituals and the deities. These local and sectoral deities and religious practices were suppressed until the civilization was in crisis some couple of hundred years later. The archaeological evidences suggest that the Indus civilization was under at least three sub-phases of urban growth, decay and renewal during the entire period of Harappan phase from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE.^[10] We assume that during the long crisis period the Indus state authority might have introduced religious practices. We also assume that the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro was such religious symbol which was built at about 2300 BCE.^[11] Recent excavations at Harappa indicate that examples of narrative art are found more commonly in the latest levels during 2200-1900 BCE. This pattern suggests that at the late phase of urbanism there was an urgent need to legitimize specific religion and figures relating to some myths.^[12] When the civilization encountered its final decay at the end of six to seven hundred years, the suppressed religious practices and the deities by different groups of people in the Indus-Saraswati valley had been freed and brought forward by the discontented groups of people to wage war against Vṛitra to destroy the dams. As the Vritra or dams had been defied and, as a result, the river-control system became a part of the existing religious system, supposedly in the last phase of the civilization, a religious reform also became essential in order to destroy it. So, the Vedic religious reform movement began and the hymns composed through the process of the religious movement led to the formation of the scripture known as the Rigveda. Similar religious reform started by the ruling class of the civilization to counter the religious reform by the rebel Vedic priests. We propose that the product of this religious reform is the Avesta.

We have mentioned earlier that the civilization was supposed to be ruled by a class of people who seemed to be democratic and secular in state administration. We also propose that atheism was practiced and promoted in the whole Indus Empire. The poor quality and small sized terracotta human figurines were not idol of deities and not consistent with the power and authority held by the rulers representing such a great and prosperous civilization. The figures of horned deity and the symbols and figurines depicted on the seals and sealing should not reflect the ideological position of the state for the same reason mentioned above. These might be the local deities of different tribes, which were suppressed by the leading tribes of the civilization during the formative process and integration phase of the civilization. Monotheism might not have been practiced by the ruler as such religious creed would make the empire tend to be totalitarian in nature, which is not also reflected in the findings of the civilization. So, there is every possibility that there was atheism practiced by the rulers of the Indus civilization and it was practiced by a large number of the population also. However, we should keep in mind that the civilization might have accommodated many diversified thoughts, ideas and philosophies, and so both polytheism and monotheism may have some room in the society in some groups, but in a suppressed position at least at the beginning of the civilization. 

As proposed above, the Indus Civilization evolved at the beginning (circa 2700-2600 BCE) as predominantly secular or atheistic. We suppose that philosophers, teachers and other think-tanks played important role in the building of the civilization by controlling the policies of the civilization. When the crisis began after some three to four hundred years the suppressed religion started becoming prominent in the popular mind and coming forward at different places of the empire.

 

Part – 2

In the sixth century BCE two dominant religions, Buddhism and Jainism, evolved in the Indian subcontinent. It is intriguing that both of these religious philosophies were atheistic or non-believer in the existence of any Supreme Being or God.  Moreover, there was some other religious sect like Ᾱjīvika which was also atheistic. In ancient India there were other philosophical schools as Cārvāka, Sāṃkhyas and Lokāyata, all recognized for their atheistic creed. We suppose that the practice of atheism was deep rooted in the popular mind of the Indus society during the Harappan phase, which transferred to the later Indian society in the Ganga valley. For this reason Buddha and Mahavira found a strong ground in the society in favor of their atheistic religious principles.

After the decline of the Indus Civilization that flourished in the Indus and Saraswati River valley, some hundreds of years later the Ganga River valley entered into the Iron Age.  The first half of second millennium BCE is marked by the appearance of iron objects in limited quantity^[13] and termed as early Iron Age. Iron was in considerable use from twelve century BCE and as time passed there were more and more use of iron in the subcontinent.

The next great phase of city life can be identified in the early historic period, with the growth of towns starting as early as 8th century BCE in the Ganga valley and slightly afterwards along the eastern coast.^[14] By the 6th century BCE, the Indian subcontinent was marked by the three distinct, interrelated, and long-lasting phenomena: the emergence of cities, the flourishing of new religions including Buddhism and Jainism, and the development of writing.

It is beyond doubt that extensive use of iron played a major role in the second urbanism at about sixth century BCE in the Ganga plain. Introduction of early coins may have played a significant role in the development of trade and commerce, which ultimately led to the development of urbanism. However, small towns may have emerged in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab much before the use of burnt bricks and coins.^[15] The early coins occur in large number at Bhita, Kausambi, Sringverapura and Jhusi, all in Uttar Pradesh. These towns came into existence during the sixth century BCE as commercial, administrative and religious centers.^[16]

During this time a large number of independent states commenced with no chief ruler. The Buddhist and the Jaina texts mention the more powerful sixteen states, named as sixteen mahajanapadas. These were the ancient republics which continued up to the third century CE. These and other smaller republics were consecrated by the presence of Buddha, Mahavir, Ᾱjīvika and other sects who propagated their teachings to different sections of the society.    

It is generally thought that the Hindu religion is very ancient, more than five thousand years or older. Present archaeological explorations carried out in different parts of Indian subcontinent show different views. They show that Buddhism and Jainism are more ancient than the Hindu or Brahmanical religion in India.   

On the basis of evidences from recent archaeological explorations in different parts of India it indicates that in the pre-Common Era Jainism and Buddhism were prominent by presence of their ancient relics. Recent excavations have proved that Odisha is one of the States in India that has the enough Buddhist remains since the Mauryan period (322 – 185 BCE) and gradual development of Buddhism is marked from the excavated sites like that of northern and southern India. Mauryan Emperor Ashoka constructed up to eighty thousand Buddhist monuments which include pillars, rock-cut sculptures, stupas, chaityas and monasteries. This practice was followed by different later dynasties like Kushans, Satvahanas, Vakatakas, Palas, Bhuaumakars, etc.^[17]

The important fact is that the development of Buddhism is reflected in monumental remains such as stupas, chaityas, rock-cut stupas and caves along with sculptures and inscriptions.^[18] Recent excavations at Juafardih (Bihar) suggests that the ancient site was inhabited between 1600-1200 BCE and there in the habitational deposit the earliest stupa was found which has been dated to about sixth-fifth century BCE.^[19] Archaeological surveys in various parts of Odisha have identified around 20 major Early Historic Buddhist sites.^[20] The recent survey and record of Buddhist remains of the Daya valley from Sisupalgarh, Dhauli, Kurkimundia, Labangiri and Aragarh hill in Odisha provided the evidence of the growth of Buddhist monuments in India, especially in stupa structure.^[21] It has been proved from the recent survey of the trade routes from Balkh and Bamiyan in Afghanistan where the Silk Routes continued through the north India in Ganga valley up to Tamralipti (Tamluk, West Bengal) and then connecting the Buddhist sites of Odisha (Kalinga) like Langudi, Radhanagar Lalitagiri, Dhauli, Aragarh, Jaugarh and passed through the South Indian Buddhist sites like Kalingapatnam, Salihundam, Sankaram, Tathalkonda, Bavikonda and Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh and Kaveripattanam in Tamil Nadu.^[22]

Earliest Buddhist rock-cut caves are found in the Barabar Hills in Bihar, belong to latter half of the 3rd century BCE, created during the reign of Ashoka. The caves are intended for stay of Buddhist monks and Ajivikas.^[23] In and around Girnar, on the suburbs of modern Junagadh, in the Saurashtra region of Gujarat, from archaeological remains it is found that the earliest circuit of worship was the Buddhist from Mauryan period, much before its fame as a center of Jaina and Hindu worship.^[24] There are over 1000 Buddhist rock-cut caves in Maharashtra region, identified in two chronological phases, one between 30 BCE and 230 CE and the later phase between around 4th and 7th century CE.^[25] Most of the Tamil-Brahmi cave inscriptions discovered at Mangulam (Tamil Nadu) are datable between 5th century BCE and 1st century CE, are dedicated to Jaina monks.^[26] Recent excavation at Damroo (Chhattisgarh) reveals 16 circular stone structures close to votive stupa, which are assignable to 1st to 5th century CE.^[27] The depiction of Buddhapada is found in various early Buddhist centers. In Damroo the footprints could be dated to circa 2nd to 3rd century CE.^[28] The elaborately decorated gates of the ‘Great Stupa’ at Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) and now devastated shrines of Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh), Bodhgaya (Bihar), and Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh), represent skillfully adapted ancient motifs and traditional craft in ancient India. In India there are innumerable monuments representing different phases of Buddhism and these help us visualize the forms and patronage through the ages. The patronage extended from emperors, kings, traders and commoners to build those monuments.^[29]

The Jainas also built stupas, as evidenced in the ancient site of Mathura (Uttar Pradesh).^[30] Some of the hemispherical tumuli of Nandangarh (Bihar) have been considered to be pre-Buddhist period.^[31] It has been observed that there are commonness of styles at certain time span among the Buddhist sites due to movement of monks, pilgrims, traders and craftsmen from one place to another. Such movements are attested from the inscriptions in various Buddhist sites. The movements and resulting socio-cultural interactions also paved way to commonality in many aspects of life including art motifs and styles during the period.^[32]

In early centuries of Common Era (CE) Brahmanism began to flourish in Odisha.^[33] It is assumed that the earliest Hindu temples are the two elliptical shrines at Besnagar (Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh) and Nagari (district Chittaurgarh) of 2nd century BCE and 1st century BCE respectively. Other than Ganga valley the Hindu temples were found in south India. The Shiva-linga at Gudimallam in Chittoor district of 2nd-1st centuries BCE and 1st century temples at Veerapuram (in the Krishna valley) is noteworthy.^[34] These early Hindu temples shared sacred space with a diverse array of domestic, local and regional cults. Many of these local and regional cults continued to maintain autonomous religious traditions, rather than being subsumed through a process of acculturation within the Brahmanical tradition, as proposed by the writers.^[35] From archaeological records it is noted that very few Hindu divinities find representation in early art of India.^[36] Archaeological excavations reveal that in Vidarbha region in Maharashtra the iconic representation of Brahmanical gods and goddess is found for the first time during Vakataka period (385-480 CE).^[37]

From the 6th to the 13th centuries CE, the structure of the Hindu temples expanded both vertically and horizontally.^[38] This period can be considered as the rise of Hindu religion.

When comparing the written records with the Buddhist and Jains to that of the Hindu, we see that Jainism and especially Buddhism shown a higher reverence for the written record. For this reason the art of calligraphy is more highly developed in Buddhist and Jaina manuscript traditions than in Brahmanical circles.^[39] Inscriptions in canonical Pali from India proper are relatively rare.^[40] It is interesting to note that Sanskrit began to come into epigraphic use only in the first century BCE according to the now generally accepted dating for the oldest Sanskrit inscriptions, namely, the Ayodhyā (Uttar Pradesh) and the Ghosuṇḍī and Hāthībāḍā stone inscriptions in Rajasthan.^[41] It was during the reign of the early Gupta emperors in the fourth century CE that Sanskrit was finally established as the epigraphic language to its merit in the subcontinent.^[42]

Recent archaeological discoveries in Indian subcontinent show at some sites in the ancient and early medieval period evidences of cattle that formed the main component of the subsistence economy. Buffalo was identified only from the Gupta and Late Gupta period at a site in Madar Dih in Uttar Pradesh.^[43] The evidences of cattle consumption also shows at some of the recently excavated sites in the early Iron Age and Iron Age.^[44] Although the archaeological data at hand are inadequate to conclude, these evidences suggest the absence of strict prohibition of use of cattle meat as a food during the period in the subcontinent; also indicates the weakness of Brahmanical control in the society in ancient and early historic period.

From the above mentioned evidences of the archaeological records for shrines, stupas chaityas of the Buddhist in the ancient India before the Common Era (CE) was much more in number than the Brahmanical relics, temples and images in the same period. However, there was high esteem of the Brahmans in the ancient Indian society, which is known from the Jātakas and other Buddhist texts.

There was crisis in Buddhism started after a blow from the Hūṇas who entered into India at fifth century CE and have destroyed large numbers of Buddhist monasteries with huge manuscript libraries during this time at the north-western part of India. The Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar and traveller Hsüan-tsang says that the Hūṇa invader Mihirakula destroyed 1600 Buddhist foundations in Gandhara (in present day north-west Pakistan and north-east Afghanistan). The Hūṇas also had devastated Taxila (Pakistani Punjab), the well-known learning center of the Buddhists. It was a prime center of learning from pre-Buddhist period. There were many well-known Buddhist universities and learning centers all over the subcontinent at different periods. Out of these are Taxila, Nalanda (Bihar), Valabhi (Sourashtra, Gujarat), Vikramsila (Bihar), Odantapuri (Bihar), Somapura Mahavihara (Paharpur, Bangladesh), Jagaddal Mahavihara (Bangladesh), Pushpagiri (Odisha), Shalban Vihara (Mainamati, Bangladesh).  

During the Muslim invasion into India, the wholesale destruction of monasteries, shrines and temples of all religions under fire and sword occurred from the 8th century at the western part and mainly from 12th century to 16th century. These invasions devastated Buddhism from western India. The last peak in Buddhism occurred during the rule of Pala dynasty by the end of the 9th to 11th centuries CE administered from the eastern part of India. At the beginning of thirteen century the invasion and mass destruction of Buddhist monasteries including the famous university of Nalanda in Bihar by Bakhtiyar Khalji caused almost disappearance of Buddhism from eastern India. Thus Buddhism was almost eradicated from the Indian subcontinent, after the series of foreign invasion from fifth century to sixteenth century with some century’s interruptions in between. 

From ancient period in India the center for the Brahmanical knowledge mainly were not the temples, but centered to the families of Brahmans which inherited from generations to generations. These Brahmanical learning centers were located in the villages or small towns. The destruction of the temples by the foreign invaders could not damage the Brahmanical religion considerably. As the religious and learning centers of the Buddhists were the monasteries and shrines, destruction of these institutions by foreign invaders made huge loss to Buddhism in India.

It is generally argued that Hindu religion carries ancient cultural and religious practices in the ancient Indian society and some of which were even practiced in the Harappan civilization or before. At Early Harappan level at Mehrgarh (Baluchistan) at Level III at about 4400-3500 BCE and at Nausharo (Baluchistan) at about 2800-2600 BCE some female figurines have been found with red pigment in the part of the hair used as vermillion or sindoor.^[45] The sindoor is common for married Indian women, common in Buddhism, Jainism, Hinduism and Sihikism.  From Mohenjo-daro terracotta human figurines found in a position of Buddhist and Hindu way of greeting, viz., the Namaste.^[46] Similar posture for respecting to others is also used in Jainism and Shikhism. Here we can state that, like other religions, the Hindu religion also inherited the legacy of earlier social and religious cultures, practices and norms, some of which even may have been carried from time immemorial.

We can now summarize and conclude here our views discussed above. From the study of the Ŗigveda and the archaeological and other scientific evidences it can be stated that Vedic religion was derived as a product of a religious reform movement by the Vedic priests, which occurred at the declining period of the Indus civilization at about 1900 BCE. We assume that the Indus state was administered by a group of atheist people and a large number of the population were influenced largely by this philosophy, which was perhaps commonly known as Lokāyata, means an atheistic and materialistic philosophy practiced by the common people. Buddhism and Jainism evolved at the sixth century BCE in the Indian subcontinent was greatly influenced by this popular and atheistic philosophy, have richer archaeological relics than the Hindu or Brahmanical religion in its early periods. The successors of the Vedic priests, after the decline of the civilization, spread in the Ganga valley and continued the legacy of Vedic religion in the later periods by introducing themselves as Brahmans. During almost two thousand years after the decline of the civilization there were many changes occurred in the Brahmanic religion, which we do not know yet in details archaeologically. However, the present archaeological evidences and other sources indicate that Hindu religion as we know today with its theology, iconography, caste system and the concept of sanctity, purity and impurity, etc. was under the process of evolution much later, might have come to limelight at the first century of BCE and taken its present shape at the time of Gupta period.   

 

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